INTRODUCTION

All grace is due to Allah, Creator and Sustainer of the universe, and I bear witness that there is no god but Allah and Muhammad is His servant, messenger and the seal of all the prophets and messengers in history. May Allah’s peace and lessing be upon them all.

I’d like first to express my thanks and appreciation to those who arranged this seminar, and I do hope that we leave it with a better understanding of each other and with more positive attitudes.

With nearly one billion followers each, Islam and christianity are major religions that influence the thinking and values of over 40 percent of the world population. While there are theological differences, some of which might be significant, there are nonetheless other important areas of belief that are shared by both communities: belief in Allah, or GOD; belief in revelation, in prophets, in the Holy Books of Allah; in the life hereafter and in a divinely inspired moral code organizing and regulating human life during our earthly journey to eternity.

MUSLIM – CHRISTIAN DIALOGUE

For the Muslims, constructive dialogue is not only permitted, it is commendable. In the Qur’an we read, “Say, `O people of the book’ (a term which particularly refers to Jews and Christians) `come to common terms as between us and you: that we worship none but Allah; that we associate no partners with Him (in His powers and divine attributes); that we erect not from among ourselves lords and patrons other than Allah.’ If then they turn back say you `Bear witness that we are Muslims.’ (Bowing) to the will of GOD.” (al-i-Imran; 3:64)

The methodology of that dialogue is also explained in the Qur’an; “Invite (all) to the way of your Lord with wisdom and beautiful exhortation, and argue with them in ways that are best.” (al-Nahl; 16:125) A prerequisite for any constructive dialogue is that both communities should not learn about each other through sources that are unsympathetic, critical, or even hostile: they should rather try to formulate an honest idea as to how the other faith is seen in its own authentic scriptures and as practiced by those who are truly committed to it. This need is even more significant in the case of the MUSLIM – CHRISTIAN dialogue. The average Christian has heard of or has read about ISLAM mostly through writers who have colonial or missionary motives, which might have given a certain slant to their interpretation of ISLAM to the western mind. While I admit that my own practice of Islam is far from perfect, I at least speak from the vantage point of someone who wants to think of himself as a committed, practicing Muslim. Now I’d like to share with you five basic areas, consideration of which is imperative in any CHRISTIAN – MUSLIM understanding: the meaning of the term “ISLAM”; the meaning of the term “Allah”; the nature of the human; the relationship between the human and Allah; the question of accountability, and finally, some conclusions pertaining to bridgebuilding between Muslims and Christians.

MEANING OF “ISLAM”

Talking the term “ISLAM,” it is important to emphasize that it is not derived from the name of any particular person, race, or locality. A muslim considers the term used by some writers, “MOHAMMEDANISM,” to be an offensive violation of the very spirit of Islamic teaching.

The Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him, is not worshipped, nor is he regarded as either the founder of Islam or the author of its Holy Book, the Qur’an. The term Islam is given in more than one place in the Qur’an itself. It is derived from the Arabic root (SLM) which connotes “peace” or “submission.” Indeed, the proper meaning of “Islam” is the attainment of peace, both inner and outer peace, by submission of oneself to the will of Allah. And when we say submit, we are talking about conscious, loving and trusting submission to the will of Allah, the acceptance of His grace and the following of His path. In that sense the Muslim regards the term Islam, not as an innovation that came in the 7th Century, Christian era, with the advent of the Prophet Muhammad, but as the basic mission of all the prophets throughout history. That universal mission was finally culminated and perfected in the last of these prophets, Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon them all.

ISLAMIC MONOTHEISM

The next essential concept that needs to be clarified is the term “Allah.” What does it mean? It should be emphasized first that the term “Allah” has no connotation at all of a tribal god, an Arabian or even a Muslim god. The term “Allah” in Arabic simply means the One and Only True, Universal God of all. To think that Allah is different from God, with a capital `G’ is no more valid than saying the French Christians worship a different god because they call him “Dieu.”

What are the basic attributes of Allah? The Qur’an mentions the “most beautiful names” (or attributes) of Allah. Instead of enumerating them all, lets examine a few. Some attributes emphasize the transcendence of Allah. The Qur’an repeatedly makes it clear that Allah is beyond our limited perception. “There is nothing whatever comparable unto Him.” (al-Shura; 42:11) “No vision can grasp Him, but His grasp is over all vision.” (al-An’am; 6:103) A Muslim never thinks of God as having any particular image, whether physical, human, material or otherwise. Such attributes as “The Perfectly – Knowing,” “The Eternal,” “The Omnipotent,” “The Omnipresent,” “The Just,” and “The Sovereign” also emphasize transcendence. But this does not mean in any way that for Muslim Allah is a mere philosophical concept or a deity far removed. Indeed, alongside this emphasis on the transcendence of Allah, the Qur’an also talks about Allah as “personal” God who is close, easily approachable, Loving, Forgiving and Merciful. The very first passage in the Qur’an, which is repeated dozens of times, is “In the name of Allah, Most Gracious, Most Merciful ….” The Qur’an tells us that when Allah created the first human “He breathed into him something of His spirit,” (al-Sajdah; 32:9) and that “Allah is closer to the human than his jugular vein.” In another beautiful and moving passage we are told, “When my servants ask you (O Muhammad) concerning me, then surely I am near to them. I listen to every suppliant who calls on Me. Let them respond to My call and obey My command that they may be led aright,”

For the Muslim, monotheism does not mean simply the unity of God, because there can be different persons in unity. Monotheism in Islam is the absolute Oneness and Uniqueness of Allah, which precludes the notion of persons sharing in Godhead. The opposite of monotheism in Islam is called in Arabic “shirk,” association of others with Allah. This includes not only polytheism, but also dualism (believing in one God for good or light and another for evil or darkness). The concept of “shirk” also includes pantheism, the idea that God is in everything. All forms of God-incarnate philosophies are excluded by Islam’s monotheism, as is blind obedience to dictators, to clergy, or to one’s own whims and desires. These all are regarded as forms of “associating” others with Allah (shirk), whether by believing that such creatures of Allah possess divinity or by believing that they share the Divine Attributes of Allah.

It should be added that, to the Muslim, monotheism is not simply a dogma. Islam’s pure, pristine and strict monotheism is much more than a thought or a belief; it is something that deeply influences the Muslim’s whole outlook on life.

NATURE OF THE HUMAN

We have talked about Allah. What about you and me? Who is the human being? Who are you and I? And why are we here on earth? The Qur’an teaches that we humans are created of three components. We are created from clay, representing the material or carnal element. We are endowed with intellect that is Allah- given to be used, not to be put on shelf. Reason may be insufficient but it is not the antithesis of faith, either. And thirdly, we are endowed with the spirit of Allah, which was breathed into us (al-Sajdah; 32:7, al-Baqarah; 2:31, al-Hijr; 15:29). The Muslim does not see human existence here on earth as punishment for eating from the forbidden tree. That event is regarded as an experiential lesson for Adam and Eve before they came to earth. The Qur’an teaches that even before the creation of the first human it was Allah’s plan to establish human life and civilization on earth (al-Baqarah; 2:30). Thus, the Muslim does not view the human as all evil, nor as all good, but rather as responsible. It is stated in several places in the Qur’an that Allah created the human to be His “khalifah,” His trustee or viceregent on earth. Humankind’s basic trust. our responsibility, is to worship Allah. Worship for the Muslim is not only engaging in formal rituals, but it is any activity in accordance with the will of Allah for the benefit of oneself and of humanity at large. Thus the Muslim views the earth, its resources and ecology as a gift from Allah to humans to harness and use in fulfillment of the trust for which we shall all be held responsible. That is why the Qur’an speaks highly of learning. The first word revealed of the Qur’an was, “Recite,” or “read.” As long as they were true to their faith and to Qur’anic injunctions about learning, Muslims established a civilization that saw great advances in science and in the humanities. Not only did they preserve earlier scientific heritage but they also added to it and paved the way for European renaissance. When Muslims again become true to their faith such history is bound to repeat itself.

ALLAH-HUMANKIND RELATIONSHIP

We talked of Allah and of humankind. Now we must ask what is their basic relationship. The Qur’an teaches us that the human race is given an innate spirituality are inherent in human existence, but this spirituality can betray us if it is not led in the right direction. To depend on a merely human feeling of the guiding Spirit is dangerous. Many groups, even cults, claim to be guided by the spirit or by God or by revelation, yet these groups hold divergent, even contradictory, beliefs. We find people behaving in contradictory ways who claim nonetheless that each is doing the will of God. “I feel,” they say, “that the spirit guides and directs me.”

A credible source of revelation is imperative. Throughout history Allah has selected particular individuals to convey His message, to receive His revelation and to exemplify it for mankind. For some of these prophets, holy books or scriptures were given revealing Allah’s commands and guidance. For most of you the names of these prophets found in the Qur’an will sound familiar: Noah, Abraham, Ishmael, Isaac, Jacob, Joseph, Moses, David, Solomon, John the Baptist, Jesus, and finally, the last prophet, Muhammad, peace be upon them all. These prophets carried the same basic message: “Not an apostle did We send before you without this inspiration sent by Us to him: that there is no god but I; therefore worship and serve Me.” (al-Anbiya; 21:25). Further, the Qur’an insists on calling all those prophets Muslims, because a Muslim is one who submits to the will of Allah. Their followers are called Muslims as well. Thus it is an article of faith for a Muslim to believe in all these prophets. Indeed, Muslims are warned that anyone accepts some prophets and rejects others, in fact rejects them all.

For a Muslim, to believe in Moses while rejecting Jesus or Muhammad is against the very teaching of Moses. And to believe in Jesus but reject Moses or Muhammad is to violate what Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad stood for. For a Muslim to believe in Muhammad and reject either Moses or Jesus is to violate his own Holy Book. “Those who deny Allah and His apostles, saying: `We believe in some but rejects others’, and (those who) wish to take a course midway. They are in truth (equally) unbelievers and We have prepared for unbelievers a humiliating punishment.”(al-Nisa’ ; 4:150-151) Recognition of all prophets is an article of faith, not a mere social courtesy or diplomatic statement. I do hope that with open minds, open hearts and further careful, honest study there may be more such mutual recognition.

THE SPECIAL ROLE OF MUHAMMAD

But why do Muslims in their testimony of faith say, “I bear witness that there is no god but Allah and that Muhammad is His messenger.” Does that mean that they in fact reject other prophets? Indeed, the special role played by Muhammad as the seal and last of all the prophets puts the Muslims in the position whereby honoring Muhammad implies honoring those who came before him as well. Muslims are warned not to make fanatical or parochial distinctions between prophets(al-Baqarah; 2:285). But the Qur’an also says that Allah has favored some prophets with more significant gifts or roles than others (al-Isra; 17:55). All are brothers, although the only prophet with the universal mission to all humankind is Muhammad, peace be upon him(al-Furqaan; 25:11). The Muslim believes not only that Muhammad is a brother of Jesus, Moses, Abraham and other prophets, but the Qur’an states in clear terms that the advent of Muhammad was foretold by previous prophets, including Moses and Jesus, peace be upon them (al-Arif; 7:157, al-Saff; 61:6). Even the Bible in its present form clearly foretells the advent of the Prophet Muhammad (e.g. Genesis 21:13,18, Deuteronomy 18:18 and 33:1-3, Isaiah 11:1-4, 21:13-17, 42:1-13 and others).

For the Muslim, the Qur’an contains the words of Allah directly and verbatim revealed to Prophet Muhammad, peace be upon him. Many confuse the Qur’an with the “Hadith,” or sayings, of the Prophet. The Hadith is quite separate from the Qur’an. The latter was dictated to Muhammad word for word through the Angel Gabriel and immediately memorized and put down in writing. It is important to emphasize that the Qur’an was neither written nor composed by Muhammad, peace be upon him. To hold such a view would contradict what the Qur’an says of itself and of Muhammad; that the prophet is not speaking on his own but only transmitting the revelation dictated to him by the Angel Gabriel. To suggest that the Qur’an borrowed from or copied from previous revelations, be it the Bible or otherwise, is, for Muslim, an accusation of “prophetic plagiarism,” a contradiction in terms. The fact that there are similarities between the Qur’an and previous scriptures is simply explained by the fact that He Who spoke through those earlier prophets is He Who revealed the Qur’an to Muhammad, the one and only true God, Allah. However, the Qur’an is the last revealed Holy Book, which supersedes previous scriptures and the only one still available in the exact words and language uttered by Prophet Muhammad.

ACCOUNTABILITY AND SALVATION

We have talked about Allah, about the human and about the relationship between them. What about accountability? How can we humans, from the Islamic perspective, overcome “sin”? The Qur’an teaches that life is a test, that earthly life is temporary (al-Mulk; 67:2). The Muslim believes that there is reward and punishment, that there is life hereafter and that reward or punishment do not necessarily wait until the day of Judgment, but start immediately after burial. The Muslim believes in resurrection, accountability, and the day of Judgement.

For a Muslim, to demand perfection in order to gain salvation is not practical. It is demanding the impossible and is unjust. Islam teaches a person to be humble and to learn that we cannot achieve salvation by our own righteousness. The reconciliation of the “sinful” human with Allah is contingent on three elements: the most important is the Grace, Mercy, and Generosity of Allah. Then there are good deeds and correct belief. Correct belief and good deeds are prerequisites for God’s Grace and Forgiveness and for rising above our common shortcomings. How can sin be washed away?

The Qur’an gives the prescription: “If anyone does evil or wrongs his own soul, but afterwards seeks Allah’s forgiveness, he will find Allah is Oft-Forgiving, Most Merciful.”(al-Nisa; 4:110). Another moving passage reads, “Those things that are good remove evil deeds.” (Hud; 11:114). Islam teaches repentance, stopping evil ways, feeling sorry for what one has done, and determining to follow the path of Allah as much as humanly possible. The Muslim does not believe in the necessity of the shedding of blood, much less innocent blood, to wash away sins. He believes that Allah is not interested in blood or sacrifice, but in sincere repentance. The Qur’an puts it clearly: “But My Mercy extends to all things.”(al-A’raf; 7:156)

THE APPLIED ASPECT

How about the application? Are we just talking theology? Since the human is Allah’s trustee, it would be inconsistent for a Muslim to separate the various aspect of life, the spiritual and the material, state and religion. We hear a lot about the “five pillars of Islam,” but they are often presented as the whole of Islam, many times in a shallow way. They are not the whole of Islam any more than one can claim to have a functional house composed exclusively of five concrete pillars. You also need the ceiling, walls, tables, windows and other things. As the mathematicians put it, it is a necessary but not a sufficient condition. The five pillars of Islam (the testimony of faith, the five daily prayers, fasting, charity, pilgrimage) are presented by most writers as matter of formal ritual. Even the pillar that is liable to appear ritualistic, daily prayers, is purely spiritual act involving much more than simply getting up and down. It has social and political lessons to teach the Muslim. What may appear as separate compartments of life simply does not exist for the Muslim. A Muslim does not say, “This is business and this is moral.” Moral, spiritual, economic, social and governmental are interrelated, because everything, including Caesar, belongs to Allah and to Allah alone.

MUSLIM / NON-MUSLIM RELATIONS

In conclusion and against this background, what is the implication for the Muslims in their attitudes toward non-Muslims? To start with, and we must be frank about it, the Qur’an makes it incumbent on the Muslim to convey Allah’s message in its final form, the Qur’an, to all humanity. We are not talking here about conversion. I do not like that word. Indeed, to turn to Islam, the religion of all the prophets in its final form, is not to turn one’s back on the preceding prophets. It is an augmentation, rather than a conversion, because it does not involve changing one’s basic spiritual nature. In the Qur’an, pure human nature is a “Muslim nature,” which knows its Lord and wishes to submit to Him. The Qur’an states, “Let there be no compulsion in religion.” (al-Baqarah; 2:256). My substitute for the term “conversion” is “reversion,” in the sense of a return to the pure monotheism in which we were all created. Thus the Muslim is taught to be tolerant towards others. Indeed, the Qur’an not only prohibits compulsion in religion, but it prohibits aggression as well, although it allows defense: “Fight in the cause of Allah those who fight you, but commit no aggression; for Allah loves not transgressors.” (al-Baqarah; 2:190)

In addition, we find that within this broad rule of dealing with non Muslims “the People of the Book” is a special term accorded to Jews and Christians in the Qur’an. Why “People of the Book”? Because the Muslim makes a clear distinction between a polytheist or an atheist and those who follow the prophets who originally received revelations from Allah. Even though a Muslim might point out areas of theological difference, we still believe in the divine origin of those revelations in their “original” forms.

How should a Muslim treat these “People of the Book”? Says the Qur’an: “Allah forbids you not, with regard to those who fight you not for [your] Faith nor drive you out of your homes, from dealing kindly and justly with them: for Allah loves those who are just. Allah only forbids you, with regard to those [others] who fight you for [your] Faith, and drive you out of your homes and support [other] in driving you out, from turning to them [for friendship and protection], that do wrong.”(al-Mumtahanah; 60:8-9)

In the world today all believers in Allah are facing common dangers: atheism, materialism, secularism and moral decay. We must work together. Allah says in the Qur’an: “…If Allah had so willed. He would have made you a single People, but His Plan is to test you in what He has given you. So strive as in a race in all virtues. The return of you all is to Allah; it is He that will show you the truth of the matters in which you dispute.” (al-Ma’idah; 5:51)

I hope, feel, and trust that there is sufficient common ground for Muslims and Christians to meet, understand each other, join hands and move together in the Path of Truth, Peace, and Justice, the Path of Allah.

Thank you very much for your patience and may peace be with you.

INTRODUCTION

1. Jesus: COMMON LINK between Muslims and Christians (Love and Respect)
2. Jesus’ nature: main area of DIFFERENCE.
3. Approaches to COMPARATIVE Christology:
   1. Examination of Authority and Authenticity of respective holy books.
   2. Examination of HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENTS of dogmas.
   3. Examination of both holy books AS THEY ARE.
4. Focus on the approach. Two main Questions:
   1. What does the QURAN say about him?
   2. What does the BIBLE say about him?

JESUS IN THE QURAN

1. PRAISE FOR MARY (3:36-37,42 and 5:78). Called sister of Aaron (19:28). In the Qur’an “sister of or brother of” means the descendant of or clan of. Aaron, Moses’ brother, was the first in line of Israelite Priesthood. Luke 1:5 calls Elizabeth, John’s mother, as a daughter of Aaron. She was a relative (cousin) of Mary (Luke 1:36). For other passages in the Qur’an where “brother of” is used in non-literal meaning see (7:65,73,85; 11:50,61,84; 27:45; 29:36).
2. VIRGIN BIRTH (3:45-47) Compared with Adam (3:59), John the Baptist (19:1-9).
3. A WORD FROM ALLAH (3:39,45; 4:170). Word is not the “Logos” or the second person in Godhead. It is the creative command of Allah “KON” or “be” ( 2:117, 3:47,59, 6:73, 16:40, 19:35, 36:82, 40:68). “Words” of Allah is used in (18:109, 8:7, 31:27) and others.
4. A SPIRIT FROM ALLAH (4:171) : same applies to other humans (15:29, 32:9, 38:72).
5. HONORED in this life and in the hereafter and among those nearest to Allah (3:45) : used also for others (33:69, 56:11, 83:21,28).
6. A PURE CHILD (19:19) : similarly used for John the Baptist (19:13). According to Islam, all children are born Pure.
7. STRENGTHENED WITH THE HOLY SPIRIT (2:87,253, 5:113) : Holy Spirit means Gabriel the Angel of Revelation (16:102).
8. PERFORMED MIRACLES by the permission of Allah (3:49, 5:113,115-118).
9. TAUGHT what all prophets taught ; worship of Allah alone (2:135-136, 5:119-120, 43:63-64).
10. MISSION specifically TO THE ISRAELITES (3:49, 5:75, 61:6).
11. REJECTION of all forms of deification of Jesus, including worship of Mary (5:119-120) , claiming that Jesus is God (5:75) and Trinity (5:76, 4:171).
12. REJECTED BY THE ISRAELITES (5:81,113, 3:52).
13. Conspiracy to CRUCIFY him FAILED and Allah raised him up (4:157).
    1. it was made to “appear to them” as such.
    2. No relevance to “respect for prophets” ,other Prophets were killed (2:61, 3:21,112, 5:73).
    3. “Mutawaffika” in (3:55) and “Tawaffaytani” in (5:120) refer to “completing” your term or mission on earth. “Tawaffi” is used also in the Qur’an for other than death (6:60, 39:42).
    4. Reference to the “death” and “resurrection” of Jesus (19:33) must be understood in the light of (4:157). It refers to death after the second coming and resurrection on the Day of Judgment. Similar terms used to refer to John the Baptist (19:15) . Many Ahadith confirm that.
14. PROPHESIED the advent of the last Prophet Muhammad (61:6, 7:157).

JESUS IN THE BIBLE

No basis in the Old Testament for Trinity or “God-incarnate”.

No conclusive uncontradicted statement by Jesus in the New Testament claiming to be God.

5 major grounds for claimed divinity :

I. WHAT WAS SAID ABOUT HIM

Many were deified without claim on their part. Insufficient ground for such a serious matter. Other early witnesses did not share the notion of deification. Many statements are allegorical.

II. HE CLAIMED DIVINITY

FIRST RESPONSE: spiritual , language and Allegory. Examples:

1. THE WAY , THE TRUTH (John 14:6): applies to every prophet in his time.
2. I AND THE FATHER ARE ONE (John 10:30): oneness in purpose , not in essence (John 17:11, 20-23).
3. SEEING HIM IS LIKE SEEING THE FATHER (Jn 14:9): seeing means knowing , as God can not be seen (Exod. 33:20, Jn. 1:18, 5:37, 14:7).
4. BEFORE ABRAHAM I AM (John 8:58): All existed in the foreknowledge of Allah.
5. ACCEPTED WORSHIP (Matt. 14:33): worship means also intense love ( worship of money,…….). Jesus himself did worship God (Luke 5:16).
6. WAS CALLED SON OF GOD: so was Adam (Luke 3:38), E’phraim (Jer. 31:9), Jacob (Exod. 4:22), David (II Sam. 7:14), Solomon (I Chron. 22:10). More than one prophet was called “ first born “ ( eg. Abraham, Jacob, David ). See for Example Ps. 2:7. “ Only Son “ is not used literally in the Bible (Gen. 22:2). “Sons of God “ was also used (Gen. 6:2, Deut. 14:1, Hos. 1:10).
7. CALLED GOD “FATHER” AND “ABBA”: Said also my father and your father (John 20:17). Others may call God “ABBA” (Rom. 8:15, Gal. 4:6).
8. CALLED MESSIAH: Means anointed. So was David (Ps. 2:2), Cyrus (Isa. 45:1).
9. CALLED SAVIOR: So was Jeho’ahaz (II Kings 13:5). Used in plural (Obad. Verse 21 and Nehem. 9:27).
10. 10. WAS CALLED LORD: Term does not mean necessarily God. Used in the N.T. to mean “teacher” or “master”.
11. WAS FILLED WITH THE HOLY SPIRIT: So was John the Baptist (Lk. 1:15), also Barnabbas (Acts 11:24).
12. SAID THAT HIS WORDS WILL NOT PASS AWAY: He also said that whatever he said was not his, but the father’s (Jn. 14:24).
13. SAID THAT ALL AUTHORITY WAS GIVEN TO HIM: He who gave authority is Greater ( ie. His God ).
14. WAS CALLED “MY LORD AND MY GOD” (Jn. 20:28): Could have been an expression of excitement or “ you are God – like “ Distinction between “ Lord “ and “ God “ is made in Icor. 8:6.
15. JEWS TRIED TO STONE HIM FOR BLASPHEMY (Jn. 10:29-33): Jews were to indict him “ by hook or by crook “, regardless of what he said. They may have considered him a false “ Messiah “. Jesus’ answer was revealing (Jn. 10:34). In Ps. 82:6, humans are called gods, allegorically, Moses was sent as “ God “ to the Pharaoh (Exod. 7:1).

SECOND RESPONSE:

Jesus always expressed his subordination to his God and Creator.

Examples:

1. DID NOTHING ON HIS OWN AUTHORITY (Jn. 5:30, 14:31, Matt. 20:23).
2. SPOKE NOT ON HIS OWN AUTHORITY (Jn. 14:10, 8:28-29).
3. SAID THAT THE FATHER IS GREATER THAN HIM (Jn. 14:28).
4. WAS TEMPTED (Matt. 4:1-11):But God can not be tempted (James 1:13).
5. HE DENIED KNOWLEDGE OF THE UNSEEN (Mk. 13:32, Matt. 24:36).
6. WAS SUBJECT TO CHANGE (Lk. 2:21, 52): But God is Immutable.
7. DID NOT ACCEPT TO BE CALLED GOOD AND DEFERRED TO GOD (Mk. 10:18).
8. PRAYED TO GOD (Mk. 14:32, Lk. 5:16).
9. REFERRED TO HIMSELF AS A PROPHET (Lk. 13:33-34). Others also called him a prophet. (Lk. 7:16, 24:19, Jn. 6:14, Heb. 3:1). Referred to as a servant of God (Acts 3:13, 4:27, 30, Matt. 12:18).
10. MADE A DISTINCTION BETWEEN HIMSELF AND THE FATHER (Matt. 23:8-10).
11. Referred to himself frequently as SON OF MAN (eg. Matt. 8:20). In the book of Acts (2:22), he is described as “a man approved of God”. While he is called Son of God nearly 68 times, not once was he called GOD THE SON. The difference between the Two expressions is like the difference between the Prophet Jesus of history and the CHRIST created in the image of the Church.

III. HIS MIRACLES PROVIDED DIVINITY

FIRST RESPONSE: He admitted that they were not by his own power (Jn. 5:30, 14:31).

SECOND RESPONSE: All had parallels in the O.T. For example:

1. BORN WITHOUT A FATHER (Heb. 7:3).
2. FED THE MULTITUDES (II Kings 4:42-44).
3. WALKED ON WATER: Similar to Moses (Exod. 14:22).
4. HEALED THE LEPERS AND BLIND: So did others (II Kings 5:14, 6:17, 20, Acts 3:7, 5:15-16).
5. BROUGHT THE DEAD TO LIFE: So did others (I Kings 17:22, II Kings 4:34, 13:21, Ezek. 37:1-14).
6. CAST THE DEVILS: Said others can too (Matt. 7:22, 12:27, Lk. 11:19).
7. ROSE FROM THE DEAD: So did others (eg. Ezek. 37:1-14).
8. ASCENDED TO HEAVENS: So did other prophets (Gen. 5:24, Heb. 11:5, II Kings 2:11-12). This seems to be inconsistent with Jn. 3:13.

IV. MESSAGE OF SALVATION

1. ASSUMES INITIAL PERFECTION OF ADAM AND INHERITANCE OF SIN, which is inconsistent with Deut. 24:16, Ezek. 18:20 and Matt. 7:2.
2. ASSUMES NECESSITY OF BLOODSHED FOR FORGIVENESS. This is inconsistent with Hos. 6:6, Ps. 30:5, 51:15-23, Matt. 9:13.
3. SACRIFICES BY ISRAELITES OR BY ABRAHAM are irrelevant to the concept of the “Crucified God”.
4. WHO DIED ON THE CROSS? God never dies and the death of one man can not atone for all mankind.
5. God’s mercy and justice can be reconciled without bloodshed. He is Most Merciful and Forgiving.

V. MYSTERY AND EXPERIENCE

1. HOW DIFFERENT from other religions or even cults? Experience alone is not an indicator of ultimate truth.
2. Difference between plausible but not fully understood religious truth (eg. eternity of God) and man made, self contradictory and untenable dogmas in the of mystery. The infinite and finite can’t be one and the same.
3. WHY ACCEPT MEN’S INTERPRETATIONS if evidence is overwhelming that Jesus was a great yet finite human? Why change the RELIGION OF JESUS into a RELIGION ABOUT JESUS?

VI. CONCLUSION

1. Old Testament Warns against associating others with God in his divine attributes.
2. Jesus confirmed the same and called the “Father” “MY GOD” (Jn. 20:17).
3. Only through the last divine revelation (the Qur’an) can confusion be removed and pure monotheism be restored

BIBLE PROPHECIES ABOUT THE ADVENT OF MUHAMMAD

Abraham is widely regarded as the common father of the Jews, Christians and Muslims. Through His second son, Isaac, came all Israelite prophets including such towering figures as Jacob, Joseph, Moses, David, Solomon and Jesus. May peace and blessings be upon them all. The advent of these great prophets was in partial fulfillment of God’s promises to bless the nations of earth through the descendants of Abraham (Genesis 12:2-3). Such fulfillment is wholeheartedly accepted by Muslims whose faith considers the belief in and respect of all prophets an article of faith.

BLESSINGS OF ISHMAEL AND ISAAC

Was the first born son of Abraham (Ishmael) and his descendants included in God’s covenant and promise? A few verses from the Bible may help shed some light on this question;

1. Genesis 12:2-3 speaks of God’s promise to Abraham and his descendants before any child was born to him.
2. Genesis 17:4 reiterates God’s promise after the birth of Ishmael and before the birth of Isaac.
3. In Genesis, ch. 21, Isaac is specifically blessed but Ishmael was also specifically blessed and promised by God to become “a great nation” especially in Genesis 21:13, 18.
4. According to Deuteronomy 21:15-17 the traditional rights and privileges of the first born son are not to be affected by the social status of his mother (being a “free” women such as Sarah, Isaac’s mother, or a “Bondwoman” such as Hagar, Ishmael’s mother). This is only consistent with the moral humanitarian principles of all revealed faiths.
5. The full legitimacy of Ishmael as Abraham’s son and “seed” and the full legitimacy of his mother, Hagar, as Abraham’s wife are clearly stated in Genesis 21:13 and 16:3.

After Jesus, the last Israelite messenger and prophet, it was time that God’s promise to bless Ishmael and his descendants be fulfilled. Less than 600 years after Jesus, came the last messenger of God, Muhammad, from the progeny of Abraham through Ishmael. God’s blessing of both of the main branches of Abraham’s family tree was now fulfilled. But are there additional corroborating evidence that the Bible did in fact foretell the advent of prophet Muhammad?

MUHAMMAD: The Prophet Like Unto Moses

Long time after Abraham, God’s promise to send the long-awaited Messenger was repeated this time in Moses’ words.

In Deuteronomy 18:18, Moses spoke of the prophet to be sent by God who is:

1. From among the Israelite’s “brethren” a reference to their Ishmaelite cousins as Ishmael was the other son of Abraham who was explicitly promised to become a “great nation”.
2. A prophet like unto Moses. There were hardly any two prophets who were so much alike as Moses and Muhammad. Both were given comprehensive law code of life, both encountered their enemies and were victors in miraculous ways, both were accepted as prophets/statesmen and both migrated following conspiracies to assassinate them. Analogies between Moses and Jesus overlooks not only the above similarities but other crucial ones as well (e.g. the natural birth, family life and death of Moses and Muhammad but not Jesus, was regarded by His followers as the Son of God and not exclusively a messenger of God, as Moses and Muhammad were and as Muslims belief Jesus was).

THE AWAITED PROPHET WAS TO COME FROM ARABIA

Deuteronomy 33:1-2 combines references to Moses, Jesus and Muhammad. It speaks of God (i.e. God’s revelation) coming from Sinai, rising from Seir (probably the village of Sa’ir near Jerusalem) and shining forth from Paran. According to Genesis 21:21, the wilderness of Paran was the place where Ishmael settled (i.e. Arabia, specifically Mecca).

Indeed the King James version of the Bible mentions the pilgrims passing through the valley of Ba’ca (another name of Mecca) in Psalms 84:4-6.

Isaiah 42:1-13 speaks of the beloved of God. His elect and messenger who will bring down a law to be awaited in the isles and who “shall not fail not be discouraged till he have set judgment on earth.” Verse 11, connects that awaited one with the descendants of Ke’dar. Who is Ke’dar? According to Genesis 25:13, Ke’dar was the second son of Ishmael, the ancestor of prophet Muhammad.

MUHAMMAD’S MIGRATION FROM MECCA TO MEDINA: PROPHECIED IN THE BIBLE?

Habakkuk 3:3 speaks of God (God’s help) coming from Te’man (an Oasis North of Medina according to J. Hasting’s Dictionary of the Bible), and the holy one (coming) from Paran. That holy one who under persecution migrated from Paran (Mecca) to be received enthusiastically in Medina was none but prophet Muhammad.

Indeed the incident of the migration of the prophet and his persecuted followers is vividly described in Isaiah 21:13-17. That section foretold as well abut the battle of Badr in which the few ill-armed faithful miraculously defeated the “mighty” men of Ke’dar, who sought to destroy Islam and intimidate their own folks who turned to Islam.

THE QUR’AN (KORAN) FORETOLD IN THE BIBLE?

For twenty-three years, God’s words (the Qur’an) were truly put into Muhammad’s mouth. He was not the “author” of the Qur’an. The Qur’an was dictated to him by Angel Gabriel who asked Muhammad to simply repeat the words of the Qur’an as he heard them. These words were then committed to memory and to writing by those who hear them during Muhammad’s life time and under his supervision.

Was it a coincidence that the prophet “like unto Moses” from the “brethren” of the Israelites (i.e. from the Ishmaelites) was also described as one in whose mouth God will put his words and that he will speak in the name of God., (Deuteronomy 18:18-20). Was it also a coincidence the “Paraclete” that Jesus foretold to come after him was described as on who “shall not speak of himself, but whatsoever he shall hear, that shall he speak . . .” (John 16:13).

Was it another coincidence that Isaiah ties between the messenger connected with Ke’dar and a new song (a scripture in a new language) to be sang unto the lord (Isaiah 42:10-11). More explicitly, prophesies Isaiah “for with stammering lips, and another tongue, will he speak to this people” (Isaiah 28:11). This latter verse correctly describes the “stammering lips” of Prophet Muhammad reflecting the state of tension and concentration he went through at the time of revelation. Another related point is that the Qur’an was revealed in piece-meals over a span of twenty three years. It is interesting to compare this with Isaiah 28:10 which speaks of the same thing.

THAT PROPHET-PARACLETE-MUHAMMAD

Up to the time of Jesus (peace be upon him), the Israelites were still awaiting for that prophet like unto Moses prophecied in Deuteronomy 18:18. When John the Baptist came , they asked him if he was Christ and he said “no”. They asked him if he was Elias and he said “no”. Then, in apparent reference to Deuteronomy 18:18, they asked him “art thou that Prophet” and he answered, “no”. (John 1:19-21).

In the Gospel according to John (Chapters 14, 15, 16) Jesus spoke of the “Paraclete” or comforter who will come after him, who will be sent by Father as another Paraclete, who will teach new things which the contemporaries of Jesus could not bear. While the Paraclete is described as the spirit of truth, (whose meaning resemble Muhammad’s famous title Al-Amin, the trustworthy), he is identified in one verse as the Holy Ghost (John 14:26). Such a designation is however inconsistent with the profile of that Paraclete. In the words of the Dictionary of the Bible, (Ed. J. Mackenzie) ” These items, it must be admitted do not give an entirely coherent picture.”

Indeed history tells us that many early Christians understood the Paraclete to be a man and not a spirit. This might explain the followings who responded to some who claimed, without meeting the criteria stipulated by Jesus, to be the awaited “Paraclete”.

It was Prophet Mohammed (peace be upon him) who as the Paraclete, comforter, helper, admonisher sent by God after Jesus. He testified of Jesus, taught new things which could not be borne at Jesus’ time, he spoke what he heard (revelation), he dwells with the believers (through his well-preserved teachings). Such teachings will remain forever because he was the last messenger of God, the only Universal Messenger to unite the whole of humanity under God and on the path of PRESERVED truth. He told of many things to come which “came to pass” in the minutest detail meeting, the criterion given by Moses to distinguish between the true prophet and the false prophets (Deuteronomy 18:22). He did reprove the world of sin, of righteousness and of judgment (John 16:8-11).

WAS THE SHIFT OF RELIGIOUS LEADERSHIP PROPHESIED?

Following the rejection of the last Israelite prophet, Jesus, it was about time that God’s promise to make Ishmael a great nation be fulfilled (Genesis 21:13, 18).

In Matthew 21:19-21, Jesus spoke of the fruitless fig tree (A Biblical symbol of prophetic heritage) to be cleared after being given a last chance of three years (the duration of Jesus’ ministry) to give fruit. In a later verse in the same chapter, Jesus said: “Therefore, say I unto you, The Kingdom of God shall be taken away from you, and given to a nation bringing forth the fruit thereof” (Matthew 21:43). That nation of Ishmael’s descendants (the rejected stone in Matthew 21:42) which was victorious against all super-powers of its time as prophecied by Jesus: “And whosoever shall fall on this stone shall be broken, but on whomsoever it shall fall, it will grind him to powder” (Matthew 21:44).

OUT OF CONTEXT COINCIDENCE?

Is it possible that the numerous prophecies cited here are all individually and combined out of context misinterpretations? Is the opposite true, that such infrequently studied verses fit together consistently and clearly point to the advent of the man who changed the course of human history, Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him). Is it reasonable to conclude that all these prophecies, appearing in different books of the Bible and spoken by various prophets at different times were all coincidence? If this is so here is another strange “coincidence”!

One of the signs of the prophet to come from Paran (Mecca) is that he will come with “ten thousands of saints” (Deuteronomy 33:2 KJV). That was the number of faithful who accompanied Prophet Muhammad to Paran (Mecca) in his victorious, bloodless return to his birthplace to destroy the remaining symbols of idolatry in the Ka’bah. Says God as quoted by Moses:

And it shall come to pass, that whosoever will not hearken unto my words which shall speak in my name, I will require it of him. (Deuteronomy 18:19).

Dear Readers:

May the light of truth shine in your heart and mind. May it lead you to peace and certitude in this life and eternal bliss in hereafter. (AMEEN)

Other sources checked include “tafsir” of the Quran including those by Ibn-Kathir, Yusuf Ali, and Sayyid Qutb; authorities in Fiqh including Sayyid Sabiq’s Fiqh-us-sunnah and Yusuf AI-Qaradawi’s AI-Halal Walharam Fil-Islam, and a reference on Hadith from Mishkat-ul-Masabeeh.

INTRODUCTION

To some as a subject the Muslim women’s dress may sound trivial. The shari’ah, however, assigns it moral, social, and legal dimensions.

One basic requirement to be a true believer according to the Quran is to make one’s opinions, feelings, and inclinations subservient to whatever Allah and his Messenger have decided:

It is not befitting for a believer, man or woman, when a matter has been decided by Allah and His Apostle to have any option about their decision: if any one disobeys Allah and His Apostle, he is indeed on a clearly wrong path. Surat-ul-Ahzab (33) 36

Placing, therefore, one’s personal opinions, feelings, or inclinations above or at the same level as the commandments of Allah is the ultimate of human pride and vanity. This means, in effect, that a mortal is responding to Allah’s guidance saying: “0 my creator! Your Law is Your Own opinion. I have my own opinion, and I know best what is good for me.” This attitude is befitting for unbelievers and hypocrites, but not for a believer no matter how imperfect (all are!) one may be in implementing Islam in one’s life. (2) The exposition of truth in an honest and straight forward way may thus cause some unease even to good and sincere Muslims. It may seem safer and diplomatic to avoid the issue altogether, or to present it in a diluted and vague way. It is even safer and more ‘diplomatic’ to
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(2) A distinction should be made between, a) the acceptance of Allah’s word as true and supreme in itself while not succeeding to implement it fully in one’s life hoping and trying to reach that goal, and b) regarding one’s own opinions or other social values and pressures as more valid than Allah’s injunctions and trying to find various excuses to lustify one’s breaking of the law of Allah. It is the latter attitude which is not only blameworthy but akin to unbelief.
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explicitly or implicitly condone each others’ infractions, to help each other find excuses and to rationalize our disobedience to Allah subhanahu wata’ala. This attitude is neither new nor it is without consequences. As the Quran presents it:

Curses were pronounced on those among the children of Israel who rejected faith, by the tongue of Dawood (David) and of Esa (Jesus) the son of Mary: because they disobeyed and persisted in excesses.

Nor did they (usually) forbid one another the iniquities which they committed: evil indeed were the deeds which they did. Surat-ul-Maidah (5) 81 –82

REQUIREMENTS IN DRESS

THE FIRST REQUIREMENT: Extent of Covering

The dress must cover the whole body except for the areas specifically exempted. The Quran states:

Say to the believing men that they should lower their gaze and guard their modesty: that will make for greater purity for them: And Allah is well acquainted with all that they do. And say to the believing women that they should lower their gaze and and guard their modesty; that they should not display their beauty and ornaments except what (must ordinarily) appear thereof; that they should draw their veils over their bosoms and not display their beauty except to their husbands, their fathers, their husbands’ fathers, their sons, their husbands’ sons, their brothers or their brothers’ sons, or their sisters’ sons, or their women, or the slaves whom their right hands possess, or male servants free of physical needs, or small children who have no sense of the shame of sex; and that they should not strike their feet in order to draw attention to their hidden ornaments. And 0 you believers! Turn all toward Allah that you may attain bliss. Surat-un-Nur (24) 30-31

These ‘ayahs contain, among other thing, two main injunctions:

1. A Muslim woman should not display her beauty and adornment (zeenah) except for “that which must ordinarily appear of it” (3) (ma dhahara minha), or “that which is apparent.” (4) The word zeenah (5) lends itself to two related meanings: a) natural or bodily beauty, (6) and, b) acquired adornment such as rings, bracelets, and clothes. The part of zeenah, exempted from the above injunction, was interpreted in two ways:

a. The face and the hands. This is the interpretation of the majority of the jurists, past and present. (7) This interpretation is confirmed by ijma’ (consensus) that a Muslim woman is allowed by Islam to uncover her face and hands during pilgrimage and even during the prayers, while the rest of her body is regarded as ‘awrah (that which should be covered). (8) This interpretation is based on the authority of Prophet Muhammad (Allah’s blessing be upon him), especially the hadith in which he says: If the woman reaches the age of puberty, No (part of her body) should be seen but this – and he pointed to his face and hands.”

b. Whatever appears of the woman’s body owing to uncontrollable factors such as the blowing of the wind, or out of
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(3) Yusuf Ali, op. cit. p.904.

(4) M.M. Pickthall, The Meaning of the Glorious Koran, p 25.

(5) According toLisan-ul-’Arab (Dictionary of Arabic language), the term zeenah includes “all that which beautifies,” quoted in (Mrs.) Ne’mat Sidqy. At- Tabarruj, 17th Printing. Dar-ul-l’tisam, Egypt, 1975 pp.20-21.

(6) The term zeenah is used in the Quran to refer to children, wealth, and natural beauty in Allah’s creation. See example Quran 17:47, 16:8, 37:6 and 3:14.

(7) This is the interpretation of Malik, Ash-Shafi’i, Abu Hanifa and a version of Ahmad b. Hanbal. See AI-Albani op. cit., pp.41.42.

(8) Al-Albani provides ample evidence that the covering of the face and hands is not required. Suffice it to say that the woman is allowed to uncover her face and hands during such spiritual acts as the prayers and pilgrimage. See pp.25-46.
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necessity such as the bracelets or even the outer clothes themselves. (9)

2. The headcovers (khumur) should be drawn over the neck slits (juyoob). Khumur is the plural of the Arabic word “khimar” which means a headcover. (10) Juyoob is the plural of the Arabic word “jaiyb” (a derivative of jawb or cutting) refers to the neck slit (of the dress). This means that the headcover should be drawn so as to cover not only the hair, but it should also be drawn over the neck and to be extended so as to cover the bosom.

THE SECOND REQUIREMENT: Looseness

The dress must be loose enough so as not to describe the shape of a woman’s body. This is consistent with the intent of the ‘ayahs cited above (24: 30-31) and is surely a crucial aspect of hiding zeenah. Even moderately-tight clothes which cover the whole body do describe the shape of such attractive parts of the woman’s body as the bustline, the waist, the buttocks, the back and the thighs. If these are not part of the natural beauty or zeenah what else is?

Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) once received a thick garment as a gift. He gave it to Osamah b. Zayd, who in turn gave it to his wife. When asked by the Prophet why he did not wear it, Osamah indicated that he gave it to his wife. The Prophet then said to Osamah “ask her to use a gholalah under it (the garment) for I fear that it (the garment) may describe the size of her bones.” (11) The word gholalah in Arabic means a thick fabric worn under the dress to prevent it from describing the shape of the body.

A highly desirable way of concealing the shape of the body is to wear a cloak over the garment. The Prophet (PBUH), however,
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(9) One weakness with this more stringent interpretation is that “uncontrollable” factors are automatically forgiven without any need for specification. The fact that Quran 24.31 exempts from all “zeenah” that which is regarded as “ma dhahara minha” is itself an indication of a concession. This concession is confirmed by the Hadith (related to Asma’ as will be seen in the discussion of the third requirement. See AI-Albani, Ibid., pp.25-46.

(10) According to Al-AIbani., this meaning of “khirmar” was explained in such authorities as lbn-ul-Atheer’s An-Nihayah and Tafseer-uI-Hafizlbn-Kathir and others. Al Albani reports that he knows of no difference on this point. See AI-Albani, Ibid, pp.33-34. (11) This Hadith appears in Musnad Ahmad, also in AI-Bayhaqi, and is confirmed in other sources of Hadith such as Sunan Abi-Dawood. See AI-Albani, IbId, p.59-63.
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indicated that if the woman’s dress meets the Islamic standards it suffices (without a cloak) even for the validity of prayers. (12)

THE THIRD REQUIREMENT: Thickness

The dress should be thick enough so as not to show the color of the skin it covers, or the shape of the body which it is supposed to hide. The purpose of ‘ayah (24:31) is to hide the Muslim women’s body except ma dhahara minha (the face and hands). It is obvious that this purpose cannot be served if the dress is thin enough so as to reveal the color of the skin or the shape or beauty of the body. This is eloquently explained by Prophet Muhammad (PBUH): “In later (generations) of my ummah there will be women who will be dressed but naked. On top of their heads (what looks) like camel, humps. Curse them for they are truly cursed.” ln another version he added that they “will not enter into paradise or (even) get a smell of it.” (13)

At one occasion Asma’ (daughter of Abu-Bakr) was visiting her sister ‘A’ishah, wife of the Prophet. When he noted that Asma’s dress was not thick enough he turned his face away in anger and said, “If the woman reaches the age of puberty, no part of her body should be seen, but this, and he pointed to his face and his hands.” (14)

THE FOURTH REQUIREMENT: Overall Appearance

The dress should not be such that it attracts men’s attention to the woman’s beauty. The Quran clearly prescribes the requirements of the woman’s dress for the purpose of concealing zeenah (adornment). How could such zeenah be concealed if the dress is designed in a way that it attracts men’s eyes to the woman? This is why the Quran addressing the Prophet’s wives as the examples for Muslim women says:

“Bedizen not yourselves with the bedizenment of the Time of Ignorance… ” (15)
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(12) See Sayyid Sabiq’s Fiqh-us-Sunnah, Dar-ul-Kitab-il-’Arabi, Beirut, Lebanon, 1969, vol.1. p.127.

(13) At-Tabarani and Sahih Muslim. See al-Albani, op. cit., p.56.

(14) At another occasion when the Prophet (PBUH) saw a bride in a thin dress he said, “she is not a woman who believes in Surat-un-Noor who wears this. “Surat-un-Noor is the Surah where the main requirements of the Muslim woman’s dress are outlined. Still on another occasion some women from the tribe of Bani Tameem came to visit ‘A’ishah in thin clothes. Upon seeing them, the Prophet (PBUH) said, “If you are believers, then these are not believers’ clothing.” See Yusuf AI-Qaradawi, op. cit, p.180.
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Additional Requirements (16)

In addition to the above four main and clearly spelled out requirements, there are other requirements whose specific applications may vary with time and location. These include:

1. The dress should not be similar to what is known as a male costume. lbn ‘Abbas narrated that “The Prophet (PBUH) cursed the men who act like women and the women who act like men.” (17)

2. It should not be similar to what is known as the costume of unbelievers. This requirement is derived from the general rule of Shari’ah that Muslims should have their distinct personality and should differentiate their practices and appearance from unbelievers.(18)

3. It should not be a dress of fame, pride and vanity. Such fame may be sought by wearing an excessively fancy dress as a status symbol or an excessively ragged dress to gain others’ admiration of one’s selflessness. Both motives are improper by Islamic standards.

The Prophet (PBUH) says:

“Whoever wears a dress of fame in this world, Allah will clothe him with a dress of humiliation in the day of resurrection, then set it afire.” (19)
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(15) The term used in the Quran is tabarruj which means displaying of beauty. Another derivative of tabarruj is burooj which is used in the Qur’an (e g 4:77, 15:16. 25:61, 85:1). Burooj means towers because of their clear visibility. Clear “Visibility” of the woman may result from the type of dress, the way she walks, or the way she behaves. (16) According to AI-Albani, a further requirement is that the dress should not be perfumed. In fact, this requirement extends beyond dress. There are several ahadeeth which make it clearly forbidden for a Muslim woman to wear perfumes when she goes out of her home even if she is going to the mosque. See AI-Albani. Op. Cit., pp. 64-66

(17) Al-Bukhari, Abu-Dawood, Ahmad, Ad-darimi. For this and other ahadeeth on the same subject see AI-Albani, Ibid, pp.66-69

(18) For an excellent discussion of this principle on the basis of Quran and Sunnah, see Al-Albani, Ibid, pp.78-109.

(19) For this and other versions of the hadeeth see AI-Albani, Ibid. pp. 110-111
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REQUIREMENTS OF MUSLIM MEN’S CLOTHING

It should be noted that the basic requirements of the Muslim woman’s dress apply as well to the Muslim man’s clothing with the difference being mainly in degree. This can best be understood by looking into what Islam defines as ‘awrah which refers to the part of the body that should be covered at all times unless there is an expressed exception. The covering of ‘awrah is also a condition for the validity of prayers for both men and women.

It has been agreed among jurists on the basis of the Quran and Sunnah that ‘awrah for the woman is defined as the whole body except for the face and hands. For the man, the ‘awrah is defined as the area between the navel and the knees. (20)

Within the definition of ‘awrah for men and women, all the four basic requirements discussed in this paper are essentially the same:

1. Man should fully cover his ‘awrah.
2. Men’s clothes should be loose enough so as not to describe what he is covering (his ‘awrah).
3. They should be thick enough so as not to describe the color of the skin or the parts required to be covered.
4. They should not be designed in a way to attract attention. The basic rule of modesty and avoiding “showoff” applies to all believers men and women.

The three other additional requirement discussed under the Muslim woman’s code of dress apply to men’s clothes as well:

1. They should not be similar to what is knows as the female dress.
2. They should not be similar to what could be identified as the dress of unbelievers.
3. They should not be clothes of fame, pride, and vanity.

In addition to the above limitations on the Muslim man’s clothes, men are not allowed to wear silk and gold. This does not apply to women.
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(20) Difference exists, however, among jurists whether the knees and the thighs should be included in the definition of the man’s ‘awrah. For a good discussion on the evidence related to both views, see Sayyid Sabiq’s Fiqh-us-Sunnah, op. cit, vot. 1, pp.125-127
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CONCLUSION

There are surely many other issues pertaining to the subjects that are not covered in this paper. Its main focus is on the documented injunctions of Allah (subhanahu wat’ala) as derived from His word (the Quran) and as explained by the chosen Messenger, Muhammad (peace be upon him). These injunctions are to be complied with by all Muslim men and women; and in case of transgression, they will be held accountable in the hereafter. Truly husbands, fathers, and mothers do have an obligation to remind, exhort and help each other achieve the pleasure of Allah and to avoid His wrath. In the final analysis, however, it is not coercion or force which is likely to bring about obedience to Allah. It is but, the love of Allah, the acceptance of His guidance as the supreme Truth even if contrary to one’s personal opinions, that will bring about the change.

MAJOR REFERENCES

AI-Quran, Translation of meanings by A. Yusuf Al and M.M. Pickthall.
AI-Hadith, as cited.
Al -Albani, Muhammad N. Hilabul Mar’at-il-Muslimah Fil-Kitab
Wassunah, 3rd Printing, AI-Maktab-uI-Islami, Beirut, Lebanon,1389 A.H. (1969).
AI-Qaradawi, Yusuf, Al-Halal Walharam FiI-Islam, Maktabat Wahbah,Cairo, 1396 A.H. (1976).
Sabiq, Sayyid, Fiqhus-Sunnah, 2nd Printing, Darul-Kitab-il-Arabi, Beirut, Lebanon, 1392 A.H. (1973).

For Muslim men and women, for believing men and women, for devout men and women, for true men and women, for men and women who are patient and constant, for men and women who humble themselves, for men and women who give in charity, for men and women who fast (and deny themselves), for men and women who guard their chastity and for men and women who engage much in Allah’s praise for them has Allah prepared forgiveness and great reward.

Quran, AI-Ahzab 33:35

Family, society and ultimately the whole of mankind is treated by Islam on an ethical basis. Differentiation in sex is neither a credit nor a drawback for the sexes. Therefore, when we talk about status of woman in Islam it should not lead us to think that Islam has no specific guidelines, limitations, responsibilities and obligations for men. What makes one valuable and respectable in the eyes of Allah, the Creator of mankind and the universe, is neither one’s prosperity, position, intelligence, physical strength nor beauty, but only one’s Allah-consciousness and awareness (taqwa). However, since in the Western culture and in cultures influenced by it, there exists a disparity between men and women there is more need for stating Islam’s position on important issues in a clear way.

Dr. Jamal Badawi’s essay, The Status of Women in Islam, was originally published in our quarterly journal, Al-lttihad, Vol. 8, No. 2, Sha’ban 1391/Sept 1971. Since then it has been one of our most-demanded publications. We thank Br. Jamal for permitting us to reprint his essay. We hope it will clarify many of the misconceptions.

Anis Ahmad,
Director Dept. of Education and Training
MSA of U.S. and Canada
P.O. Box 38 Plainfield, IN 46168 USA

Jumada al Thani 1400 April 1980

I. INTRODUCTION

The status of women in society is neither a new issue nor is it a fully settled one.

The position of Islam on this issue has been among the subjects presented to the Western reader with the least objectivity.

This paper is intended to provide a brief and authentic exposition of what Islam stands for in this regard. The teachings of Islam are based essentially on the Quran (God’s revelation) and Hadeeth (elaboration by Prophet Muhammad).

The Quran and the Hadeeth, properly and unbiasedly understood, provide the basic source of authentication for any position or view which is attributed to Islam.

The paper starts with a brief survey of the status of women in the pre-Islamic era. It then focuses on these major questions: What is the position of Islam regarding the status of woman in society? How similar or different is that position from “the spirit of the time,” which was dominant when Islam was revealed? How would this compare with the “rights” which were finally gained by woman in recent decades?

II. HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

One major objective of this paper is to provide a fair evaluation of what Islam contributed (or failed to contribute) toward the restoration of woman’s dignity and rights. In order to achieve this objective, it may be useful to review briefly how women were treated in general in previous civilizations and religions, especially those which preceded Islam (Pre-610 C.E.). Part of the information provided here, however, describes the status of woman as late as the nineteenth century, more than twelve centuries after Islam.

Women in Ancient Civilization

Describing the status of the Indian woman, Encyclopedia Britannica states:

In India, subjection was a cardinal principle. Day and night must women be held by their protectors in a state of dependence says Manu. The rule of inheritance was agnatic, that is descent traced through males to the exclusion of females.

In Hindu scriptures, the description of a good wife is as follows: “a woman whose mind, speech and body are kept in subjection, acquires high renown in this world, and, in the next, the same abode with her husband.”

In Athens, women were not better off than either the Indian or the Roman women.

“Athenian women were always minors, subject to some male – to their father, to their brother, or to some of their male kin.

Her consent in marriage was not generally thought to be necessary and “she was obliged to submit to the wishes of her parents, and receive from them her husband and her lord, even though he were stranger to her.”

A Roman wife was described by an historian as: “a babe, a minor, a ward, a person incapable of doing or acting anything according to her own individual taste, a person continually under the tutelage and guardianship of her husband.”

In the Encyclopedia Britannica, we find a summary of the legal status of women in the Roman civilization:

In Roman Law a woman was even in historic times completely dependent. If married she and her property passed into the power of her husband . . . the wife was the purchased property of her husband, and like a slave acquired only for his benefit. A woman could not exercise any civil or public office . could not be a witness, surety, tutor, or curator; she could not adopt or be adopted, or make will or contract. Among the Scandinavian races women were:

under perpetual tutelage, whether married or unmarried. As late as the Code of Christian V, at the end of the 17th Century, it was enacted that if a woman married without the consent of her tutor he might have, if he wished, administration and usufruct of her goods during her life.

According to the English Common Law:

…all real property which a wife held at the time of a marriage became a possession of her husband. He was entitled to the rent from the land and to any profit which might be made from operating the estate during the joint life of the spouses. As time passed, the English courts devised means to forbid a husband’s transferring real property without the consent of his wife, but he still retained the right to manage it and to receive the money which it produced. As to a wife’s personal property, the husband’s power was complete. He had the right to spend it as he saw fit.

Only by the late nineteenth Century did the situation start to improve. “By a series of acts starting with the Married women’s Property Act in 1870, amended in 1882 and 1887, married women achieved the right to own property and to enter contracts on a par with spinsters, widows, and divorcees.” As late as the Nineteenth Century an authority in ancient law, Sir Henry Maine, wrote: “No society which preserves any tincture of Christian institutions is likely to restore to married women the personal liberty conferred on them by the Middle Roman Law.”

In his essay The Subjection of Women, John Stuart Mill wrote:

We are continually told that civilization and Christianity have restored to the woman her just rights. Meanwhile the wife is the actual bondservant of her husband; no less so, as far as the legal obligation goes, than slaves commonly so called.

Before moving on to the Quranic decrees concerning the status of woman, a few Biblical decrees may shed more light on the subject, thus providing a better basis for an impartial evaluation. In the Mosaic Law, the wife was betrothed. Explaining this concept, the Encyclopedia Biblica states: “To betroth a wife to oneself meant simply to acquire possession of her by payment of the purchase money; the betrothed is a girl for whom the purchase money has been paid.” From the legal point of view, the consent of the girl was not necessary for the validation of her marriage. “The girl’s consent is unnecessary and the need for it is nowhere suggested in the Law.”

As to the right of divorce, we read in the Encyclopedia Biblica: “The woman being man’s property, his right to divorce her follows as a matter of course.” The right to divorce was held only by man. “In the Mosaic Law divorce was a privilege of the husband only …. ”

The position of the Christian Church until recent centuries seems to have been influenced by both the Mosaic Law and by the streams of thought that were dominant in its contemporary cultures. In their book, Marriage East and West, David and Vera Mace wrote:

Let no one suppose, either, that our Christian heritage is free of such slighting judgments. It would be hard to find anywhere a collection of more degrading references to the female sex than the early Church Fathers provide. Lecky, the famous historian, speaks of (these fierce incentives which form so conspicuous and so grotesque a portion of the writing of the Fathers . . . woman was represented as the door of hell, as the mother of all human ills. She should be ashamed at the very thought that she is a woman. She should live in continual penance on account of the curses she has brought upon the world. She should be ashamed of her dress, for it is the memorial of her fall. She should be especially ashamed of her beauty, for it is the most potent instrument of the devil). One of the most scathing of these attacks on woman is that of Tertullian: Do you know that you are each an Eve? The sentence of God on this sex of yours lives in this age: the guilt must of necessity live too. You are the devil’s gateway: you are the unsealer of that forbidden tree; you are the first deserters of the divine law; you are she who persuades him whom the devil was not valiant enough to attack. You destroyed so easily God’s image, man. On account of your desert – that is death – even the Sop of God had to die). Not only did the church affirm the inferior status of woman, it deprived her of legal rights she had previously enjoyed.

III. WOMAN IN ISLAM

In the midst of the darkness that engulfed the world, the divine revelation echoed in the wide desert of Arabia with a fresh, noble, and universal message to humanity: “O Mankind, keep your duty to your Lord who created you from a single soul and from it created its mate (of same kind) and from them twain has spread a multitude of men and women” (Quran 4: 1).

A scholar who pondered about this verse states: “It is believed that there is no text, old or new, that deals with the humanity of the woman from all aspects with such amazing brevity, eloquence, depth, and originality as this divine decree.”

Stressing this noble and natural conception, the Quran states:

He (God) it is who did create you from a single soul and therefrom did create his mate, that he might dwell with her (in love)…(Quran 7:189)

The Creator of heavens and earth: He has made for you pairs from among yourselves …Quran 42:1 1

And Allah has given you mates of your own nature, and has given you from your mates, children and grandchildren, and has made provision of good things for you. Is it then in vanity that they believe and in the grace of God that they disbelieve? Quran 16:72

The rest of this paper outlines the position of Islam regarding the status of woman in society from its various aspects – spiritually, socially, economically and politically.

1. The Spiritual Aspect

The Quran provides clear-cut evidence that woman in completely equated with man in the sight of God in terms of her rights and responsibilities. The Quran states:

“Every soul will be (held) in pledge for its deeds” (Quran 74:38). It also states:

…So their Lord accepted their prayers, (saying): I will not suffer to be lost the work of any of you whether male or female. You proceed one from another …(Quran 3: 195).

Whoever works righteousness, man or woman, and has faith, verily to him will We give a new life that is good and pure, and We will bestow on such their reward according to the their actions. (Quran 16:97, see also 4:124).

Woman according to the Quran is not blamed for Adam’s first mistake. Both were jointly wrong in their disobedience to God, both repented, and both were forgiven. (Quran 2:36, 7:20 – 24). In one verse in fact (20:121), Adam specifically, was blamed.

In terms of religious obligations, such as the Daily Prayers, Fasting, Poor-due, and Pilgrimage, woman is no different from man. In some cases indeed, woman has certain advantages over man. For example, the woman is exempted from the daily prayers and from fasting during her menstrual periods and forty days after childbirth. She is also exempted from fasting during her pregnancy and when she is nursing her baby if there is any threat to her health or her baby’s. If the missed fasting is obligatory (during the month of Ramadan), she can make up for the missed days whenever she can. She does not have to make up for the prayers missed for any of the above reasons. Although women can and did go into the mosque during the days of the prophet and thereafter attendance et the Friday congregational prayers is optional for them while it is mandatory for men (on Friday).

This is clearly a tender touch of the Islamic teachings for they are considerate of the fact that a woman may be nursing her baby or caring for him, and thus may be unable to go out to the mosque at the time of the prayers. They also take into account the physiological and psychological changes associated with her natural female functions.

2. The Social Aspect

a) As a child and an adolescent

Despite the social acceptance of female infanticide among some Arabian tribes, the Quran forbade this custom, and considered it a crime like any other murder.

“And when the female (infant) buried alive – is questioned, for what crime she was killed.” (Quran 81:8-9).

Criticizing the attitudes of such parents who reject their female children, the Quran states:

When news is brought to one of them, of (the Birth of) a female (child), his face darkens and he is filled with inward grief! With shame does he hide himself from his people because of the bad news he has had! Shall he retain her on (sufferance) and contempt, or bury her in the dust? Ah! What an evil (choice) they decide on? (Quran 16: 58-59).

Far from saving the girl’s life so that she may later suffer injustice and inequality, Islam requires kind and just treatment for her. Among the sayings of Prophet Muhammad (P.) in this regard are the following:

Whosoever has a daughter and he does not bury her alive, does not insult her, and does not favor his son over her, God will enter him into Paradise. (Ibn Hanbal, No. 1957).

Whosoever supports two daughters till they mature, he and I will come in the day of judgment as this (and he pointed with his two fingers held together).

A similar Hadeeth deals in like manner with one who supports two sisters. (Ibn-Hanbal, No. 2104).

The right of females to seek knowledge is not different from that of males. Prophet Muhammad (P.) said:

“Seeking knowledge is mandatory for every Muslim”. (AlBayhaqi).

Muslim as used here including both males and females.

b) As a wife:

The Quran clearly indicates that marriage is sharing between the two halves of the society, and that its objectives, beside perpetuating human life, are emotional well-being and spiritual harmony. Its bases are love and mercy.

Among the most impressive verses in the Quran about marriage is the following.

“And among His signs is this: That He created mates for you from yourselves that you may find rest, peace of mind in them, and He ordained between you love and mercy. Lo, herein indeed are signs for people who reflect.” (Quran 30:2 1).

According to Islamic Law, women cannot be forced to marry anyone without their consent.

Ibn Abbas reported that a girl came to the Messenger of God, Muhammad (P.), and she reported that her father had forced her to marry without her consent. The Messenger of God gave her the choice . . . (between accepting the marriage or invalidating it). (Ibn Hanbal No. 2469). In another version, the girl said: “Actually I accept this marriage but I wanted to let women know that parents have no right (to force a husband on them)” (Ibn Maja, No. 1873).

Besides all other provisions for her protection at the time of marriage, it was specifically decreed that woman has the full right to her Mahr, a marriage gift, which is presented to her by her husband and is included in the nuptial contract, and that such ownership does not transfer to her father or husband. The concept of Mahr in Islam is neither an actual or symbolic price for the woman, as was the case in certain cultures, but rather it is a gift symbolizing love and affection.

The rules for married life in Islam are clear and in harmony with upright human nature. In consideration of the physiological and psychological make-up of man and woman, both have equal rights and claims on one another, except for one responsibility, that of leadership. This is a matter which is natural in any collective life and which is consistent with the nature of man.

The Quran thus states:

“And they (women) have rights similar to those (of men) over them, and men are a degree above them.” (Quran 2:228).

Such degree is Quiwama (maintenance and protection). This refers to that natural difference between the sexes which entitles the weaker sex to protection. It implies no superiority or advantage before the law. Yet, man’s role of leadership in relation to his family does not mean the husband’s dictatorship over his wife. Islam emphasizes the importance of taking counsel and mutual agreement in family decisions. The Quran gives us an example:

“…If they (husband wife) desire to wean the child by mutual consent and (after) consultation, there is no blame on them…” (Quran 2: 233).

Over and above her basic rights as a wife comes the right which is emphasized by the Quran and is strongly recommended by the Prophet (P); kind treatment and companionship.

The Quran states:

“…But consort with them in kindness, for if you hate them it may happen that you hate a thing wherein God has placed much good.” (Quran 4: l9).

Prophet Muhammad. (P) said:

The best of you is the best to his family and I am the best among you to my family.

The most perfect believers are the best in conduct and best of you are those who are best to their wives. (Ibn-Hanbal, No. 7396)

Behold, many women came to Muhammad’s wives complaining against their husbands (because they beat them) – those (husbands) are not the best of you.

As the woman’s right to decide about her marriage is recognized, so also her right to seek an end for an unsuccessful marriage is recognized. To provide for the stability of the family, however, and in order to protect it from hasty decisions under temporary emotional stress, certain steps and waiting periods should be observed by men and women seeking divorce. Considering the relatively more emotional nature of women, a good reason for asking for divorce should be brought before the judge. Like the man, however, the woman can divorce her husband with out resorting to the court, if the nuptial contract allows that.

More specifically, some aspects of Islamic Law concerning marriage and divorce are interesting and are worthy of separate treatment.

When the continuation of the marriage relationship is impossible for any reason, men are still taught to seek a gracious end for it.

The Quran states about such cases:

When you divorce women, and they reach their prescribed term, then retain them in kindness and retain them not for injury so that you transgress (the limits). (Quran 2:231). (See also Quran 2:229 and 33:49).

c) As a mother:

Islam considered kindness to parents next to the worship of God.

“And we have enjoined upon man (to be good) to his parents: His mother bears him in weakness upon weakness…” (Quran 31:14) (See also Quran 46:15, 29:8).

Moreover, the Quran has a special recommendation for the good treatment of mothers:

“Your Lord has decreed that you worship none save Him, and that you be kind to your parents. . .” (Quran 17:23).

A man came to Prophet Muhammad (P) asking:

O Messenger of God, who among the people is the most worthy of my good company? The Prophet (P) said, Your mother. The man said then who else: The Prophet (P) said, Your mother. The man asked, Then who else? Only then did the Prophet (P) say, Your father. (Al-Bukhari and Muslim).

A famous saying of The Prophet is “Paradise is at the feet of mothers.” (In Al’Nisa’I, Ibn Majah, Ahmad).

“It is the generous (in character) who is good to women, and it is the wicked who insults them.”

3. The Economic Aspect

Islam decreed a right of which woman was deprived both before Islam and after it (even as late as this century), the right of independent ownership. According to Islamic Law, woman’s right to her money, real estate, or other properties is fully acknowledged. This right undergoes no change whether she is single or married. She retains her full rights to buy, sell, mortgage or lease any or all her properties. It is nowhere suggested in the Law that a woman is a minor simply because she is a female. It is also noteworthy that such right applies to her properties before marriage as well as to whatever she acquires thereafter.

With regard to the woman’s right to seek employment it should be stated first that Islam regards her role in society as a mother and a wife as the most sacred and essential one. Neither maids nor baby-sitters can possibly take the mother’s place as the educator of an upright, complex free, and carefully-reared children. Such a noble and vital role, which largely shapes the future of nations, cannot be regarded as “idleness”.

However, there is no decree in Islam which forbids woman from seeking employment whenever there is a necessity for it, especially in positions which fit her nature and in which society needs her most. Examples of these professions are nursing, teaching (especially for children), and medicine. Moreover, there is no restriction on benefiting from woman’s exceptional talent in any field. Even for the position of a judge, where there may be a tendency to doubt the woman’s fitness for the post due to her more emotional nature, we find early Muslim scholars such as Abu-Hanifa and Al-Tabary holding there is nothing wrong with it. In addition, Islam restored to woman the right of inheritance, after she herself was an object of inheritance in some cultures. Her share is completely hers and no one can make any claim on it, including her father and her husband.

“Unto men (of the family) belongs a share of that which Parents and near kindred leave, and unto women a share of that which parents and near kindred leave, whether it be a little or much – a determinate share.” (Quran 4:7).

Her share in most cases is one-half the man’s share, with no implication that she is worth half a man! It would seem grossly inconsistent after the overwhelming evidence of woman’s equitable treatment in Islam, which was discussed in the preceding pages, to make such an inference. This variation in inheritance rights is only consistent with the variations in financial responsibilities of man and woman according to the Islamic Law. Man in Islam is fully responsible for the maintenance of his wife, his children, and in some cases of his needy relatives, especially the females. This responsibility is neither waived nor reduced because of his wife’s wealth or because of her access to any personal income gained from work, rent, profit, or any other legal means.

Woman, on the other hand, is far more secure financially and is far less burdened with any claims on her possessions. Her possessions before marriage do not transfer to her husband and she even keeps her maiden name. She has no obligation to spend on her family out of such properties or out of her income after marriage. She is entitled to the “Mahr” which she takes from her husband at the time of marriage. If she is divorced, she may get an alimony from her ex-husband.

An examination of the inheritance law within the overall framework of the Islamic Law reveals not only justice but also an abundance of compassion for woman.

4. The Political Aspect

Any fair investigation of the teachings of Islam o~ into the history of the Islamic civilization will surely find a clear evidence of woman’s equality with man in what we call today “political rights”.

This includes the right of election as well as the nomination to political offices. It also includes woman’s right to participate in public affairs. Both in the Quran and in Islamic history we find examples of women who participated in serious discussions and argued even with the Prophet (P) himself, (see Quran 58: 14 and 60: 10-12).

During the Caliphate of Omar Ibn al-Khattab, a woman argued with him in the mosque, proved her point, and caused him to declare in the presence of people: “A woman is right and Omar is wrong.”

Although not mentioned in the Quran, one Hadeeth of the Prophet is interpreted to make woman ineligible for the position of head of state. The Hadeeth referred to is roughly translated: “A people will not prosper if they let a woman be their leader.” This limitation, however, has nothing to do with the dignity of woman or with her rights. It is rather, related to the natural differences in the biological and psychological make-up of men and women.

According to Islam, the head of the state is no mere figurehead. He leads people in the prayers, especially on Fridays and festivities; he is continuously engaged in the process of decision-making pertaining to the security and well-being of his people. This demanding position, or any similar one, such as the Commander of the Army, is generally inconsistent with the physiological and psychological make-up of woman in general. It is a medical fact that during their monthly periods and during their pregnancies, women undergo various physiological and psychological changes. Such changes may occur during an emergency situation, thus affecting her decision, without considering the excessive strain which is produced. Moreover, some decisions require a maximum of rationality and a minimum of emotionality – a requirement which does not coincide with the instinctive nature of women.

Even in modern times, and in the most developed countries, it is rare to find a woman in the position of a head of state acting as more than a figurehead, a woman commander of the armed services, or even a proportionate number of women representatives in parliaments, or similar bodies. One can not possibly ascribe this to backwardness of various nations or to any constitutional limitation on woman’s right to be in such a position as a head of state or as a member of the parliament. It is more logical to explain the present situation in terms of the natural and indisputable differences between man and woman, a difference which does not imply any “supremacy” of one over the other. The difference implies rather the “complementary” roles of both the sexes in life.

IV. CONCLUSION

The first part of this paper deals briefly with the position of various religions and cultures on the issue under investigation. Part of this exposition extends to cover the general trend as late as the nineteenth century, nearly 1300 years after the Quran set forth the Islamic teachings.

In the second part of the paper, the status of women in Islam is briefly discussed. Emphasis in this part is placed on the original and authentic sources of Islam. This represents the standard according to which degree of adherence of Muslims can be judged. It is also a fact that during the downward cycle of Islamic Civilization, such teachings were not strictly adhered to by many people who profess to be Muslims.

Such deviations were unfairly exaggerated by some writers, and the worst of this, were superficially taken to represent the teachings of “Islam” to the Western reader without taking the trouble to make any original and unbiased study of the authentic sources of these teachings.

Even with such deviations three facts are worth mentioning:

1. The history of Muslims is rich with women of great achievements in all walks of life from as early as the seventh century (B.C.)
2. It is impossible for anyone to justify any mistreatment of woman by any decree of rule embodied in the Islamic Law, nor could anyone dare to cancel, reduce, or distort the clear-cut legal rights of women given in Islamic Law.
3. Throughout history, the reputation, chastity and maternal role of Muslim women were objects of admiration by impartial observers.

It is also worthwhile to state that the status which women reached during the present era was not achieved due to the kindness of men or due to natural progress. It was rather achieved through a long struggle and sacrifice on woman’s part and only when society needed her contribution and work, more especial!; during the two world wars, and due to the escalation of technological change.

In the case of Islam such compassionate and dignified status was decreed, not because it reflects the environment of the seventh century, nor under the threat or pressure of women and their organizations, but rather because of its intrinsic truthfulness.

If this indicates anything, it would demonstrate the divine origin of the Quran and the truthfulness of the message of Islam, which, unlike human philosophies and ideologies, was far from proceeding from its human environment, a message which established such humane principles as neither grew obsolete during the course of time and after these many centuries, nor can become obsolete in the future. After all, this is the message of the All-Wise and all-knowing God whose wisdom and knowledge are far beyond the ultimate in human thought and progress.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

The Holy, Quran: Translation of verses is heavily based on A. Yusuf Ali’s translation, The Glorious Quran, text translation, and Commentary, The American Trust Publication, Plainfield, IN 46168, 1979.

Abd Al-Ati, Hammudah, Islam in Focus, The American Trust Publications, Plainfield, IN 46168, 1977.

Allen, E. A., History of Civilization, General Publishing House, Cincinnati, Ohio, 1889, Vol. 3.

Al Siba’i, Mustafa, Al-Alar’ah Baynal Fiqh Walqanoon (in Arabic), 2nd. ea., Al-Maktabah Al-Arabiah, Halab, Syria, 1966.

El-Khouli, Al-Bahiy, “Min Usus Kadiat Al-Mara’ah” (in Arabic), A 1- Waay A l-lslami, Ministry of Walcf, Kuwait, Vol.3 (No. 27), June 9, 1967, p.17.

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Hadeeth. Most of the quoted Hadeeth were translated by the writer. They are quoted in various Arabic sources. Some of them, however, were translated directly from the original sources. Among the sources checked are Musnad Ahmad Ibn Hanbal Dar AlMa’aref, Cairo, U.A.R., 1950, and 1955, Vol.4 and 3,SunanIbnMajah, Dar Ihya’a Al-Kutub al-Arabiah, Cairo, U.A.R., 1952, Vol.l, Sunan al-Tirimidhi, Vol.3.

Mace, David and Vera, Marriage: East and West, Dolphin Books, Doubleday and Co., Inc., N.Y., 1960.